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Notation systems Throughout time, the development of notation systems has allowed musical compositions to be expressed in writing according to their grammar. This process has allowed people to store compositions and communicate them so that there was no content loss even after an extended amount of time. There are two main notations utilized while writing down tabla compositions: the Pt. Bhatkhande notation system (created by Pt. Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande) and Pt. Paluskar notation system (created by Pt. Vishnu Digambar Paluskar). ​ ​ Pt. Bhatkhande Notation System ​ Sum - an "x" is used below the syllable. Taali - the number order of the taali is written below the syllable. For example, if a given syllable occurs at the 3rd taali of the taal, put a 3 there. Khaali - an "o" is used below the syllable. Vibhaag - The symbol " | " is used after every vibhaag -If there is 1 syllable in a given maatra, such as "dha," then do not put any symbol below the maatra. ​ -If there are multiple syllables in a given maatra, such as "dhatitedha," then put an upward curve below the maatra. ​ -A pause is noted with an "S". ​ ​ Examples in Pt. Bhatkhande notation system: ​ Pt. Paluskar Notation System ​ Sum - a "1" is used below the syllable. Taali - the number of the maatra is written below the syllable. For example, if the taali occurs at the 5th maatra, then put a 5 there. Khaali - a "+" is used below the syllable. Vibhaag - The symbol " | " is used after the completion of the entire taal. It is not used after each vibhaag. ​ -A pause is noted with an "S". ​ -If there is 1 syllable in a given maatra, such as "dha," then put a horizontal line " _____ " below the maatra. ​ -If there are 2 syllables in a given maatra, such as "dhage," then put 2 tiny circles " ○ " below the maatra, 1 for each syllable. ​ -If there are 3 syllables in a given maatra, such as "takite," then put 3 squiggly lines " ∽ " below the maatra, 1 for each syllable. ​ -If there are 4 syllables in a given maatra, such as "tinakena," then put 4 upward curves " ⌣ " below the maatra, 1 for each syllable. ​ -If there are 6 syllables in a given maatra, such as "dhagetinakena," then put 6 double squiggly lines " ≈ " below the maatra, 1 for each syllable. ​ -If there are 8 syllables in a given maatra, such as "dhatidhagetinakena," then put 8 double upward curves " ⋓ " (a little better looking than that lol) below the maatra, 1 for each syllable. ​ -A pause is noted with an "S". ​ Examples: ​ ​ Comparison between both notation systems ​ Pt. Bhatkhande notation system provides us information about the position of the taali, khaali, and vibhaag of the taal. However, if there are multiple syllables in a maatras, we always put an upward curve below it, and we can't understand the jati of the maatra or how the maatra was divided. For example, there is no way to distinguish between writing a tisra jati 1/6 maatra bol and a chatushra jati 1/8 maatra bol. We are also unable to easily deduce which maatra a particular taali falls on because the number order of the taali is written, not the number of the maatra on which the taali falls on. ​ Pt. Paluskar notation system also provides us information about the position of the taali and khaali, but does not indicate the vibhaag of the taal. However, we can more accurately communciate the value of multiple syllables within a maatra as per its intricate indication system. Still, there is no provision for the 1/5th or 1/7th maatra. ​ Pt. Bhatkhande notation system is the system of choice for long compositions because it is faster to write in and we don't have to worry about indicating the maatra-value of each individual syllable like Pt. Paluskar notation system. All types of jatis may be expressed in Pt. Bhatkhande notation system. On the other hand, Pt. Paluskar notation system is more useful for communicating the jati of various phrases and smaller concepts such as tigun and chaugun of various taals like teentaal and ektaal. However, it may take more time. Both systems have their advantages and disadvantages. ​ ​ *For exams: While writing compositions, try to include the maatra count, which maatras the taali occurs on, which maatras the khaali occurs on, and the vibhaag of the taal. This helps to organize the notation and symbols in the actual awartan. ​ ​ Examples in both notation systems: ​ BACK TO TOP

1. Prarambhik The Prarambhik tabla exam is an elementary level exam meant to introduce the basics of tabla. It helps the student understand basic definitions and introductory compositions. Sylllabus Theory 1. Definitions Maatra Taal Sum Taali Khaali Vibhaag Dugun Awartan Notes Maatra - A maatra is a medium of measuring the taal. It is the smallest whole unit or "beat" of a taal. Each taal has a set number of maatras, and each maatra is of equal length. Example: Teentaal has 16 maatras of equal length. In literal terms, maatra means "part". ​ Taal - Taal refers to a system of rhythmic pattern in Indian Classical Music. Rhythm is a fundamental concept for music. While there a various types of taals, with different characteristics and number of maatras, songs, instrumental compositions, and dance compositions in Indian Classical Music are established in a certain taal. This way, taal is a technique of measuring time in musical compositions. ​ Sum - Sum refers to the first maatra of the taal. In other words, it is a beginning. The main function of the sum is to establish a point of resolution or emphasis. In theory, it represents a "restart" of a cycle of taal. ​ Taali - A taali can be represented by the clapping of hands during recitation of a taal. It represents the starting maatra of a bhari , or packed, division. ​ Khaali - A khaali can be represented by taking your hand away or striking with the back of your hand during recitation of a taal. It represents the starting maatra of a khaali , or hollow, division. ​ Taali and Khaali are ideas that represent the first maatras of multiple divisions, or vibhaags, of a taal. They are useful when presenting a taal on hand (Hasta Kriya) . ​ Vibhaag - Vibhaag, or khand, are divisions made within a taal as per the khaali and bhari (packed and hollow) components of a taal. A vibhaag can be of even or odd number of maatras, and different taals may have different vibhaags. For example, teentaal has 4 vibhaags of 4 maatras each (4+4+4+4) whereas rupak has 3 vibhaags of 3,2,2 maatras (3+2+2). In other words, vibhaags are subsections made within a particular taal. ​ Dugun - Dugun is when a phrase is played two times, at twice speed, within a certain time interval. Whenever 2 maatras are played within a time span of 1 maatra, it is considered dugun. ​ Awartan - An awartan is one cycle or rotation of a particular composition. In tabla, if a composition is played once, from sum to sum, one awartan of that composition is played. For example, one awartan of teentaal will be of 16 maatras, whereas two awartans of teentaal will be of 32 maatras. ​ BACK TO TOP

laya and layakari Laya ​ Laya means tempo. It is the distance between two maatras. As the distance decreases, laya increases and vice versa. Laya also means destruction - when you play the second matra the time interval of the first maatra is destroyed. Every aspect of music is dependent on the laya, and laya is a universal theme (ex. Planets revolve at a specific speed). There are three main types of laya: Madhya laya - Is the medium tempo, approximately equal to heart rate, 80 bpm. Vilambit laya- Is the slow tempo played at approximately ½ of the speed of the madhya laya, 40 bpm (bada khayal is performed in vilambit). Ektaal, jhoomra, teentaal are taals than can be appropriately played in vilambit. Drut laya - Is the fast tempo played at approximately 2 times the speed of the madhya laya, 160 bpm. ​ There aren’t precise numbers for each laya, it is relative to the composition. Normally performances begin with vilambit laya, then go to madhya laya, and end in drut or ati-drut laya. (Ex. peshkaar, kayda, rela, tukdas) Baraabar laya/Thaa(ठाह), dugun (2 maatras in 1), tigun (3 in 1), chaugun (4 in 1) Layakari ​ The skill of controlling the laya and changing how the maatras are divided to create rhythmic variation. In other words, it is the practical and artistic implementation of various layas. ​ Relation between Laya and Layakari ​ Laya and layakari are closely related ideas. Whenever we create and perform a specific layakari, we require a specific laya. Music can’t simply jump from 102 bpm to 22 bpm to 15 bpm during a theka or kayda, for example. When performing, the tabla composition and lehra will be of a particular laya, and the laya will generally increase throughout the performance. The word “layakari” is “laya” + “kari” meaning “to do” laya. Whole number layakaris: Dugun, Tigun, Chougun. Fractional layakaris: Kuwaad laya (5 maatras in the span of 4 maatras - 1.25), Aad laya (3 maatras in the span of two maatras - 1.5), Biad laya (7 maatras in the span of 4 maatras - 1.75), Navamgun laya (9 maatras in the span of 4 maatras - 2.25), Ekadashguna laya (11 maatras in 4 maatras - 2.75). ​ How to write fractional layakari of any taal ​ Laya is the distance between two maatras and the repetition of the interval over multiple maatras in a sequence. During accompaniment or in a solo, the original laya is kept the same, and the number of beats in the theka can be increased or decreased, and this process describes performing layakari during a musical performance. (Ex. going from 4 beats/maatra to 6/8/12 beats/maatra to complement the main artist’s focus. However we should not do layakari or play too much where it’s not appropriate). ​ When performing layakari, complex fractional forms can be used. Double 2/1 (Duppat) Triple 3/1 (Tippat) Quadruple 4/1 (Chaupat) 3/4 (Poundpat) 4/3 (Inverse of Poundpat) 5/4 (Kuwaad) 4/5 (Inverse of Kuwaad) 3/2 (Aad) 2/3 (Inverse of Aad) 7/4 (Biaad) 4/7 (Inverse of Biaad) *The above method of referring to layas with fractions is adopted because it is easier to understand the speed in relation to the value of the fraction (as taught in school). For example, if the fraction is 7/4, it is faster than baraabar laya because 7/4 is greater than 1. If the fraction is 3/4 (Poundpat), then it is slower than baraabar laya because 3/4 is less than 1. The above method of referring to layas in terms of fractions smaller than or larger than 1 is found to be efficient because it directly indicates if the speed is slower or faster than baraabar. Think of the respective fractions as "multipliers". if the fraction is less than 1, it goes slower than baraabar Ex. (2/3) if the fraction is more than 1, it goes faster than baraabar Ex. (3/2) In order to master layakari in any taal, understanding the layakari with mathematical formulas is essential. For example, let’s try writing jhaptaal in kuwaad (5/4) laya. Step 1: The numerator of the fraction (5) represents the number of beats in each maatra while writing kuwaad. Step 2: The denominator minus 1 (3) represents the number of pauses to leave after each bol while writing kuwaad. Step 3: Write the kuwaad of jhaptaal with 5 beats per maatra and 3 beats of pauses after each bol. → DhinSSSNa SSSDhiS SSDhiSS SNaSSS TinSSSNa SSSDhiS SSDhiSS SNaSSS Because writing the kuwaad of jhaptaal took 8 maatras, we can fill the first two maatras with pauses to complete one awartan of jhaptaal (10 maatras). → SSSSS SSSSS DhinSSSNa SSSDhiS SSDhiSS SNaSSS TinSSSNa SSSDhiS SSDhiSS SNaSSS We can use those steps to write the layakari of any taal in any laya. The above method can be used for writing layakari so that it fits within one awartan (sum-to-sum). However, we can also write the kuwaad of jhaptaal 5 times without the two maatras of pause in the beginning so that it fits in 4 awartans of jhaptaal (40 maatras). We were able to find out that doing the kuwaad of jhaptaal takes 8 maatras by practically writing and finding out. But there is also another way of finding out how many maatras the layakari of a particular taal will be. Simply flip the numerator and denominator and multiply that by the number of maatras in the taal. Ex. The juwaad of jhaptaal will be 8 maatras long The inverse of kuwaad fraction (5/4) is 4/5 4/5 times 10 maatras in jhaptaal is 8 Ex. The aad of teentaal will be 10 and 2/3 maatras long The inverse of aad fraction (3/2) is 2/3 2/3 times 16 maatras in teentaal is 10 and 2/3 ​ ​ Jati ​ The concept of layakari can be demonstrated in jati as well. Jati indicates creating a distribution of syllables in a particular maatra in various ways. In general, a maatra is divided in 4 syllables, but we can divide it in other whole numbers as well. Tisra jati: 3 beats in 1 Chatushra jati: 4 beats in 1 Khand jati: 5 beats in 1 Mishra jati: 7 beats in 1 Sankirna jati: 9 beats in 1 Divyasankirna jati: 11 beats in 1 ​ *Note: multiples are also allowed. Example: tisra jati can be 6 beats in 1, mishra jati can be 14 beats in 1 ​ BACK TO TOP

practice exams This page includes practice exams for the written portion of tabla curriculum. In this section, students will be given a specific amount of time depending on their level and will be asked to write essays for each question. The first question asked is often mandatory, but you will only need to complete 4 more questions out of the remaining questions, in order to complete a total of 5. If there are more than 5 questions included on the paper, the student may have a choice as to which to answer. For Visharad Pratham and Visharad Purna, the examinee will have two separate sessions to complete two different written exams. ​ ​ Praveshika Purna ​ Set 1 1. Write the notation of any two from the following. (Required) a) Roopak and jhaptaal as per Pt. Bhatkhande and Pt. Paluskar notation systems. b) Single and double of teentaal as per Pt. Bhatkhande and Pt. Paluskar notation systems. c) Sum to sum tukda in teentaal and jhaptaal. ​ 2a. Fill in the blanks. a) The sign for khaali as per Pt. Paluskar notation system is _____. b) There are _____ maatras in the second vibhaag of deepchandi. c) There are always _____ intervals in a tihai. d) When the distance between two maatras is less, the composition is in _____ laya. e) The sum of roopak is on the _____ beat. ​ 2b. Match the corresponding terms from Group A to Group B. Group A: kayda, deepchandi, dhumaali, theka, chautaal Group B: thumri, expandable composition, first composition of taal, pakhawaaj, bhajan ​ 3. Example, in detail, vilambit, madhya, and drut laya. ​ 4. Describe the taals ektaal and chautaal and distinguish between their characteristics. ​ 5. Explain the playing techniques of TRKT, GDNG, trake, KTTK, and DRDR. ​ 6. Define the following terms: rela, palta, uthaan, laggi, chakradaar. ​ 7. Describe Pt. Paluskar notation system while providing suitable examples. ​ ​ ​ ​ Additional randomized questions ​ After explaining all types of layas in detail, explain which laya each of the following compositions can be played in. Laggi, kayda, peshkaar, rela​ ​ Write a tukda in jhaptaal using the Pt. Bhatkhande notation system. Then write the tigun of jhaptaal in Pt. Paluskar notation system. ​ Define mukhda and mohra. Afterwards, compare and contrast kayda and rela. ​ Compose a tihai in roopak with 14 maatras to spare, a 1 maatra pause, and while using the bol "TRKT". First explain your mathematical calculations to understand how many maatras will exist within each of the 3 divisions of the tihai, then write the tihai down. ​ ​ Differentiate between the playing techniques of the bols "GDNG" and "GDGN". ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Madhyama Pratham ​ Set 1 ​ 1. Write the notation of any three from the following: (Required) a) Tigun of ektaal as per Pt. Paluskar notation. b) Dumdaar tihai in jhaptaal. c) Dugun of dhamaar as per Pt. Paluskar notation. d) Keherwa laggi. e) Teentaal gat. ​ 2. Fulfill the following. a) What are the similarities and differences between teentaal and tilwada? b) Use Pt. Paluskar notation to write teentaal and tilwada. c) What are the ways in which teentaal and tilwada are used in accompaniment? ​ 3. What is khula baaj, and what is band baaj? Explain using suitable examples. Describe which gharanas in tabla are known for using khula baaj and band baaj respectively. ​ 4. Describe the following vocal styles, explaining how tabla accompaniment should be done for each. Khayal, taraana, thumri ​ 5. What theories exist regarding the evolution of tabla? Afterwards, briefly contrast tabla solo and accompaniment and then list the main skills involved in each respective category (solo and accompaniment). ​ 6. Define and elaborate on the following terms with suitable examples: Farmaishi chakradaar, peshkaar, paran ​ 7. Explain the process of tuning the tabla. Then, describe how tablas of different scales are used in different kinds of Indian Classical Music. ​ ​ ​ ​ Madhyama Purna ​ Set 1 ​ 1. Write the notation of any three from the following. (Required) a) Theka of rupak in kuwaad b) Theka of teentaal in biaad. c) Kamaali chakradaar in teentaal. d) Gat-kayda in teentaal. e) Tigun of Ektaal in Pt. Paluskar notation system. ​ 2. Briefly summarize the styles of dhrupad, dhamaar, ghazal, and tappa. Then, in a well written analysis, differentiate and contextualize dhrupad vs. khayal and the history surrounding both. ​ 3. Quickly summarize the accomplishments of Lucknow gharana. Afterwards, describe the baaj, thought process, and history of Farrukhabad gharana. ​ 4. Describe the history of tabla, as well as relevant theories of origin, in detail. ​ 5a. Define aamad, chaupalli, and kamaali chakradaar. ​ 5b. Explain the best practices of accompaniment towards bada khayal. ​ 6. How does taal provide a valid framework for Indian Classical Music? How does taal relate to tabla and tabla compositions? ​ 7. Analyze peshkaar, kayda, and rela in terms of the following components while contrasting between the compositions. Placement, expandability, ability to be improvised, and types of bols utilized. ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Visharad Pratham (Theory I) ​ Set 1 ​ 1. Write the notation of any three from the following. (Required) a) Chakradaar in chautaal. b) Dumdaar tihai in roopak. c) Aad and biaad laya of dhamaar. d) Tukda in taal sawari. e) Aad and biaad laya of ektaal. ​ 2. Explain the importance and chronological order of peshkaar, kayda, rela, and gat in tabla solo-playing. ​ 3. Briefly give information about gharanas in tabla. Compare and Contrast the features and playing techniques of Delhi and Lucknow Gharanas. ​ 4. Write about various changes and developments that took place in the history of tabla from its origin to present time. ​ 5. Include detailed information about various riyaaz techniques to improve the balance between the daya and baya. ​ 6. Point out the contributions of the following artists in tabla (any 3). a) Ut. Salaari Khan b) Pt. Madhavrao Algutkar c) Ut. Inam Ali Khan d) Pt. Purshottamdas Pakhawaaji e) Ut. Karamtullah Khan ​ 7. Write 2 bedum and 2 dumdaar tihais in ada-chautaal and jhaptaal. ​ Example randomized questions ​ ​ Imagine some chakradaar in teentaal with 32 maatras to spare and a pause of 1 maatra in between the 3 divisions of the chakradaar. First, explain how many maatras will be in each of the 3 divisions/tihais of the chakradaar and show your math calculations. Then compose a chakradaar with those characteristics using the bol "DRDRKTTK" somewhere within the chakradaar, and write it using Pt. Bhatkhande notation system. ​ ​ ​ Visharad Pratham (Theory II) ​ Set 1 ​ 1. Write notation of any 3 within the following. (Required) a) Dumdaar tihai in ektaal b) Kamaali chakradaar in roopak c) Kuwaad and biaad laya of teentaal d) Farmaishi chakradaar in ektaal e) Tigun and chaugun of deepchandi as per Pt. Bhatkhande notation system ​ 2. Define taal and explain the relationship between taal and theka. Explain the importance of taal and theka in Indian Classical Music. ​ 3. Define the following terms with suitable examples (pick 5). gat-paran, mukhda, peshkaar, farmaishi chakradaar, mohra, chalan, aamad ​ 4. Explain the classification of Indian Classical instruments while providing suitable examples for each category. ​ 5. Define laya and layakari, then write in detail about the relationship between the two. ​ 6. Write the similarities and differences between the following sets of taals (any 3). dhamaar and ada-chautaal teentaal and tilwada tevra and pashto jhaptaal and sooltaal ​ 7. Explain rela, then write a tisra jati rela in jhaptaal along with 4 paltas and a tihai. Afterwards, write a tukda and bedum tihai in teentaal. ​ BACK TO TOP

ladi Ladi implies a series. There are multiple viewpoints of the definition and significance of ladi. ​ "Lad" means a garland of flowers. Just as how the flowers are intertwined in such a way that it is impossible to distinguish and find the "starting point" and "ending point" of the garland, we are unable to find the "starting point" and "ending point" of a ladi, as well as where the sum occurs. Ladis often include heavy bols, as well as bols that are considered hard to play. According to Pt. Arvind Mulgaonkarji's book, the bols of a ladi are as if multiple threads were intertwined into a cord. According to Pt. Sudhir Mayinkar, ladi is similar to the word "ladai". "Ladai" in hindi means fight. He signifies that the nature of the bols of a ladi are such that the audience gets a delusion that they are fighting amongst each other. ​ A ladi has paltas and can be expanded. Just as how TRKT and DRDR are core phrases found in relas, "tite" is a core phrase found in ladi. "Ghidanage" is also occasionally found in ladi. ​ ​ ​ BACK TO TOP

TAALS Comparative Analysis BACK TO TOP

fundamentals essential concepts of tabla

2. PraVESHIKA PRATHAm The Praveshika Pratham tabla exam introduces the student to new definitions and types of compositions. The student will be asked to perform single and double of taals with hand gestures. The student will have to describe different parts of both the tabla and the dagga. Sylllabus Theory 1. Definitions Sangeet , Naad, Swar, Laya, Bol, Theka, Kissm, Kayda, Mukhda, Mohra, Tihai, Tigun, Chaugun, Tukda ​ 2. Recital of following taals using hand gestures with taali/khaali in single and double tempo Rupak and Ektaal ​ 3. Description of different parts of tabla Notes 1. Definitions ​ Sangeet - Sangeet is the combination of the 3 arts in Indian Classical Music: singing, instrumental playing, and dancing. ​ Naad - The sound that is produced from playing a certain bol on a musical instrument. ​ Swar - Swar refers to distinct musical notes of various frequencies. (Sa, Re, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni, Sa). ​ Laya - Laya, or tempo, is an important element of music. It is the distance between two maatras. When the distance between two maatras increases, the speed of the composition slows down, and vice versa. In other words, laya represents the equal movement of time and the equal spacing between two maatras. Laya also means destruction: when a second maatra is produced, the time interval or the reign of the first maatra fades away. An artist may perform in various layas according to th e rules of Indian Classical Music. ​ There are three main types of Laya: Madhya Laya - Medium tempo, approximately equal to heart rate, 80 bpm Vilambit Laya - Slow tempo played at approximately ½ of the speed of the Madhya Laya, 40 bpm Drut Laya - Fast tempo played at approximately 2 times the speed of the Madhya Laya, 160 bpm There aren’t precise numbers for each laya, it is relative to the composition. ​ More Info ​ Bol - Bol refers to a syllable/note (such as dha) or group of syllables/notes (such as TRKT) played on an instrument. While some bols are played individually on either the daya or the baya, some bols are be played by striking simultaneously on both drums. Bols are the most basic components of vocabulary in tabla compositions, and can be arranged to make bigger compositions such as kaydas and tihais. ​ Theka - The utilization of various organized bols in order to express a particular taal through a musical instrument is called theka. While a taal can be simply expressed through taali/khaali, in order for a taal to be musically useful, a theka is employed. There may be differences of the theka played for any particular taal according to the context in which the theka is performed. ​ Taal and Theka ​ Kissm - Variations in a theka played without disturbing the theme or flow of the theka are called kissm. While accompanying, a tabla player may play various kissm in order to musically and appropriately match the main performing artist's composition. ​ Kayda - An expansionary composition with a balance of consonant and vowel phrases which begin and ends with a vowel phrase is called a kayda. Kaydas have khaali and bhari componnts and divisions. The divisions of a kayda may either be symmetrical to the taal in which the kayda is established or may fall in odd places. More Info ​ Mukhda - A mukhda is a short and attractive composition of a few maatras used to land on the sum. A mukhda is longer than Mohra but shorter than Tukda. The length of a Mukhda is generally equal to or less than one Awartan. It uses stronger bols such as those found in a Paran. Some stalwarts say that a mukhda usually is the combination of bols composed in the last few maatras of an awartan in order to arrive at the sum. It may or may not have a tihai. ​ Mohra - A mohra is a small composition used to arrive at the sum gracefully. It is shorter in length than Mukhda and uses softer bols. It is usually a pick-up phrase or hook played spontaneously in accompaniment to vocal/instrumental music in order to transition onto the next awartan. It may or may not have a tihai. ​ Tihai - A t ihai is a composition in which a phrase is repeated 3 times with 2 equal pauses to arrive on a designated position, usually but not necessarily the sum. More Info Tigun - In a cycle or time interval of a particular phrase, if that phrase is instead played 3 times at thrice the speed, it is tigun. In other words, tigun is triple tempo. ​ Chaugun - In a cycle or time interval of a particular phrase, if that phrase is instead played 4 times at 4 times the speed, it is chaugun. In other words, chaugun is quadruple tempo. ​ Tukda - A tukda is a fixed composition primarily with forceful bols and heavy consonants. A tukda contains a tihai within it and usually is 2-3 awartans in length. Some stalwarts argue that a tukda, or "piece," is a portion of a longer composition which, even if played independently, appears meaningful. More Info ​ ​ 2. Recital of Rupak and Ektaal visit Taals ​ 3. Description of different parts of tabla visit Tabla Structure ​ BACK TO TOP

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